Communication
Language
Linguists have found that even very primitive societies have complex languages that reflect the environment in which people live. Because
1
of varying environments, it is often difficult to translate directly from one
1
language to another. For example, people living in the temperate zone of the
Northern Hemisphere customarily use the term summer to refer to the months
of June, July, and August, whereas people in tropical zones may use the term to denote their dry season, which varies substantially in time of year from one country to another. Some concepts simply do not translate. For instance, in Spanish there is no word to refer to everyone who works in a business organization. Instead, there is one word, emvleados. which refers to white-collar workers, and another word,jibreros, which refers to laborers. This distinction reflects the substantial class difference between the groups. Another interesting difference between English and Spanish, which undoubtedly reflects attitudes, is that a clock "runs" in English but "walks" in Spanish.
Languages such as English, French, and Spanish have such widespread acceptance (they are spoken prevalently in 44, 27, and 20 countries, respectively) that native speakers are generally not very motivated to learn other languages. (See the Languages map in the full-color map section of this book.) Commerce and other cross-border associations can be conducted easily with other nations that have the same official language. When a second language is studied, it is usually chosen because it will be useful in dealing with other countries. English and French have traditionally been chosen because of commercial links developed during colonial periods. France has recently begun subsidizing French language training in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union because of the possible advantage to its commerce.34 In countries that do not share a common language with other countries (e.g., Finland and Greece) there is a much greater need to study a/second or multiple languages in order to function internationally. But English, especially American English, is being added to languages worldwide. Some 20.000 English words have entered the Japanese language; the Russian word for tight denim pants is dzhinsi (pronounced "jeansy"); the French call a self-service restaurant le self; and Lithuanians go to the theater to see moving pikceris.^
Even within the same language there may be substantial differences. The terms,corn, maize, and graduate studies in the United Kingdom, correspond to
juheat corn, and undergraduate studies, respectively, in the United States. They
are among the approximately 4000 words used differently between the two countries. Although the wrong choice of words is usually just a source of brief embarrassment, a poor translation may have tragic consequences. Inaccurate
translations have been blamed for structure collapses at construction sites in the Middle East.36 In contracts, correspondence, negotiations, advertisements, and social gatherings, words must be chosen rarpfiijl^
Language also may reflect the internal cohesion of a country. In some countries, such as Japan and Portugal, almost everyone speaks the same native language. In about half the countries of the world, however, different groups speak different languages, and the groups may be very difficult to unify. In some cases, the official language of the country is actually spoken by only a minority of the inhabitants. This is true in India and Zaire, where, nevertheless, the most power has accrued to those few people who speak the official language.
Silent Language
Of course, formal language is not our only means of communication. We all exchange messages by a host of nonverbal cues, and these cues form a silent language.38 Colors, for example, conjure up meanings that are based on cultural experience. In most Western countries black is associated with death, yet white in parts of the Far East and purple in Latin America have the same connotation. To be successful, the color of products and their advertisements must match the consumers' frame of reference.
Another example of silent language is distance between people during conversation. Our sense of appropriate distance is learned, and it differs from one society to another. In the United States, for example, the customary distance for a business discussion is five to eight feet; for personal business it is eighteen inches to three feet.,39 When the distance is closer or greater than is customary, we tend to feel very uneasy. A U.S. manager conducting business discussions in Latin America may constantly be moving backward to avoid the closer conversational distance to which the Latin American official is accustomed. At the conclusion of the session, each party may feel an unexplain-able distrust of the other,
Punctuality is another area in which cultural differences may create confusion. In the United States, participants usually arrive early for a business appointment. For a dinner at someone's home, guests arrive on time or a few minutes late, and for a cocktail party, they may arrive a.bit later. In a foreign country, the concept of punctuality may be radically different. A U.S. busi-nessperson in Latin America, for example, may consider it discourteous if the Latin American manager does not keep to the appointed time. Latin Americans may find it equally discourteous if the U.S. businessperson arrives for_ dinner at the invited time.
Cues concerning a person's relative position may be particularly difficult to grasp. A U.S. businessperson, who tends to place a greater reliance on objects as prestige cues, may underestimate the importance of a foreign counterpart who does not have a large private office with a wood desk and carpeting. A foreigner may react similarly if U.S. counterparts open their own garage doors and mix their own drinks.
Body language
(the way in which people move their bodies, touch, and walk) differs from country to country. Few gestures are universal in meaning. For example, the "yes" of a Greek. Turk, orj^nlparian is indicated by a sideways movement of the head that resembles thenegauve shake used in the United States and elsewhere in Europe. In some cases, one gesture may have several meanings. For instance, the joining of the index finger and thumb to form an "O" means O.K. in the United States, money in Japan, and "I will kill vou" in Tunisia
Perception and Processing
We perceive cues (features indicating the na- ture 0f things) selectively. We may identify by means of any of our senses (sight, smell, touch, sound, and taste) and in various ways within each sense.
For example, through vision we can sense color, depth, and shape. The cues that we use to perceive things differ from one society to another. The reason is partly physiological—for example, genetic differences in eye pigmentation enable some groups to differentiate colors more finely than others—and partly cultural—for example, a relative richness of vocabulary can cause people to notice very subtle differences in color.41 Differences in vocabulary reflect cultural differences: There are more than 6000 different words in Arabic for camels, their body parts, and the equipment associated with camels.42
Regardless of societal differences, once people perceive cues, they process them. Information processing is universal in that all societies categorize, plan, and quantify. In terms of categorization, we bring objects together according to their major shared function. Something to sit upon is thus called a chair in English, whether it is large or small, made of wood or plastic, upholstered or not. The languages of all societies have future and conditional tenses; thus all societies plan. All societies have numbering systems as well. But the specific ways in which societies go about grouping things, dealing with the future, and counting differ substantially.43 For example, in United States telephone directories, the entries are organized by last (family) names, whereas in Iceland they are organized by first (given) names. Icelandic last names are derived from the father's first names; thus Jon, the son of Thor, is Jon Thorson, and his sister's last name is Thorssdottir (daughter of Thor).
Evaluation of Information
In spite of vast differences within countries,
there are national norms that govern the degree to which people will try to
resolve principles before they try to resolve small issues or vice versa. In other
words, people will tend toward either idealism or pragmatism. From a business standpoint, the differences manifest themselves in a number of ways.
The idealist sees the pragmatist as being too interested in trivial details, whereas the pragmatist considers the idealist too theoretical. Labor, in a society of pragmatists, tends to focus on very specific issues, such as a pay increase of one dollar per hour. In a society of idealists, labor tends to make less precise demands and to depend on mass action, such as general strikes or support of a particular political party, to demonstrate its principles.
Linguists have found that even very primitive societies have complex languages that reflect the environment in which people live. Because
1
of varying environments, it is often difficult to translate directly from one
1
language to another. For example, people living in the temperate zone of the
Northern Hemisphere customarily use the term summer to refer to the months
of June, July, and August, whereas people in tropical zones may use the term to denote their dry season, which varies substantially in time of year from one country to another. Some concepts simply do not translate. For instance, in Spanish there is no word to refer to everyone who works in a business organization. Instead, there is one word, emvleados. which refers to white-collar workers, and another word,jibreros, which refers to laborers. This distinction reflects the substantial class difference between the groups. Another interesting difference between English and Spanish, which undoubtedly reflects attitudes, is that a clock "runs" in English but "walks" in Spanish.
Languages such as English, French, and Spanish have such widespread acceptance (they are spoken prevalently in 44, 27, and 20 countries, respectively) that native speakers are generally not very motivated to learn other languages. (See the Languages map in the full-color map section of this book.) Commerce and other cross-border associations can be conducted easily with other nations that have the same official language. When a second language is studied, it is usually chosen because it will be useful in dealing with other countries. English and French have traditionally been chosen because of commercial links developed during colonial periods. France has recently begun subsidizing French language training in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union because of the possible advantage to its commerce.34 In countries that do not share a common language with other countries (e.g., Finland and Greece) there is a much greater need to study a/second or multiple languages in order to function internationally. But English, especially American English, is being added to languages worldwide. Some 20.000 English words have entered the Japanese language; the Russian word for tight denim pants is dzhinsi (pronounced "jeansy"); the French call a self-service restaurant le self; and Lithuanians go to the theater to see moving pikceris.^
Even within the same language there may be substantial differences. The terms,corn, maize, and graduate studies in the United Kingdom, correspond to
juheat corn, and undergraduate studies, respectively, in the United States. They
are among the approximately 4000 words used differently between the two countries. Although the wrong choice of words is usually just a source of brief embarrassment, a poor translation may have tragic consequences. Inaccurate
translations have been blamed for structure collapses at construction sites in the Middle East.36 In contracts, correspondence, negotiations, advertisements, and social gatherings, words must be chosen rarpfiijl^
Language also may reflect the internal cohesion of a country. In some countries, such as Japan and Portugal, almost everyone speaks the same native language. In about half the countries of the world, however, different groups speak different languages, and the groups may be very difficult to unify. In some cases, the official language of the country is actually spoken by only a minority of the inhabitants. This is true in India and Zaire, where, nevertheless, the most power has accrued to those few people who speak the official language.
Silent Language
Of course, formal language is not our only means of communication. We all exchange messages by a host of nonverbal cues, and these cues form a silent language.38 Colors, for example, conjure up meanings that are based on cultural experience. In most Western countries black is associated with death, yet white in parts of the Far East and purple in Latin America have the same connotation. To be successful, the color of products and their advertisements must match the consumers' frame of reference.
Another example of silent language is distance between people during conversation. Our sense of appropriate distance is learned, and it differs from one society to another. In the United States, for example, the customary distance for a business discussion is five to eight feet; for personal business it is eighteen inches to three feet.,39 When the distance is closer or greater than is customary, we tend to feel very uneasy. A U.S. manager conducting business discussions in Latin America may constantly be moving backward to avoid the closer conversational distance to which the Latin American official is accustomed. At the conclusion of the session, each party may feel an unexplain-able distrust of the other,
Punctuality is another area in which cultural differences may create confusion. In the United States, participants usually arrive early for a business appointment. For a dinner at someone's home, guests arrive on time or a few minutes late, and for a cocktail party, they may arrive a.bit later. In a foreign country, the concept of punctuality may be radically different. A U.S. busi-nessperson in Latin America, for example, may consider it discourteous if the Latin American manager does not keep to the appointed time. Latin Americans may find it equally discourteous if the U.S. businessperson arrives for_ dinner at the invited time.
Cues concerning a person's relative position may be particularly difficult to grasp. A U.S. businessperson, who tends to place a greater reliance on objects as prestige cues, may underestimate the importance of a foreign counterpart who does not have a large private office with a wood desk and carpeting. A foreigner may react similarly if U.S. counterparts open their own garage doors and mix their own drinks.
Body language
(the way in which people move their bodies, touch, and walk) differs from country to country. Few gestures are universal in meaning. For example, the "yes" of a Greek. Turk, orj^nlparian is indicated by a sideways movement of the head that resembles thenegauve shake used in the United States and elsewhere in Europe. In some cases, one gesture may have several meanings. For instance, the joining of the index finger and thumb to form an "O" means O.K. in the United States, money in Japan, and "I will kill vou" in Tunisia
Perception and Processing
We perceive cues (features indicating the na- ture 0f things) selectively. We may identify by means of any of our senses (sight, smell, touch, sound, and taste) and in various ways within each sense.
For example, through vision we can sense color, depth, and shape. The cues that we use to perceive things differ from one society to another. The reason is partly physiological—for example, genetic differences in eye pigmentation enable some groups to differentiate colors more finely than others—and partly cultural—for example, a relative richness of vocabulary can cause people to notice very subtle differences in color.41 Differences in vocabulary reflect cultural differences: There are more than 6000 different words in Arabic for camels, their body parts, and the equipment associated with camels.42
Regardless of societal differences, once people perceive cues, they process them. Information processing is universal in that all societies categorize, plan, and quantify. In terms of categorization, we bring objects together according to their major shared function. Something to sit upon is thus called a chair in English, whether it is large or small, made of wood or plastic, upholstered or not. The languages of all societies have future and conditional tenses; thus all societies plan. All societies have numbering systems as well. But the specific ways in which societies go about grouping things, dealing with the future, and counting differ substantially.43 For example, in United States telephone directories, the entries are organized by last (family) names, whereas in Iceland they are organized by first (given) names. Icelandic last names are derived from the father's first names; thus Jon, the son of Thor, is Jon Thorson, and his sister's last name is Thorssdottir (daughter of Thor).
Evaluation of Information
In spite of vast differences within countries,
there are national norms that govern the degree to which people will try to
resolve principles before they try to resolve small issues or vice versa. In other
words, people will tend toward either idealism or pragmatism. From a business standpoint, the differences manifest themselves in a number of ways.
The idealist sees the pragmatist as being too interested in trivial details, whereas the pragmatist considers the idealist too theoretical. Labor, in a society of pragmatists, tends to focus on very specific issues, such as a pay increase of one dollar per hour. In a society of idealists, labor tends to make less precise demands and to depend on mass action, such as general strikes or support of a particular political party, to demonstrate its principles.
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